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Coffee, cocoa, and pollinators

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Multiple forces have been at play that have been detrimental to pollinators including climate change, land use change, pesticide use, and more.  There have been substantial declines in both the abundance and diversity of insect pollinators.  There is increasing public awareness of this issue, but it hasn’t really risen all that high among many people’s concerns.

A new study by University College London looked at the effects of the global decline in pollinators on thousands of crop-growing sites around the world involving thousands of insect pollinator species.

About 75% of all crops grown depend on pollinators to some degree.  The UCL research created a model that looks at which pollination dependent crops are most threatened over the next 30 years in order to provide a warning to both the agricultural and conservation communities.

The research indicates that the tropics are likely to be most at risk with regard to reduced crop production caused by pollinator losses.  This is mostly due to the interaction of climate change and land use.  The risks are highest in sub-Saharan Africa, northern South America, and southeast Asia.

These areas are where the world gets most of its coffee and cocoa, two crops that are near and dear to most of us.  These crops, as well as others such as mangoes, play vital roles in both local economies and global trade and reducing them could lead to increased income insecurity for millions of small-scale farmers in these tropical regions.

If pollinator loss isn’t high up on your list of global concerns, perhaps you should think about it next time you have a cup of coffee or enjoy some chocolate.

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Coffee and cocoa plants at risk from pollinator loss

Photo, posted May 23, 2013, courtesy of McKay Savage via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

Wind turbines and bats

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Collisions with wind turbines are one of the leading causes of bat mortality in North America and Europe.  Most bat fatalities are caused by bats colliding with the rotating blades of wind turbines.  Fatalities are highest during autumn migration and on nights with low wind speeds.

According to a recent study, land-based wind turbines kill as many as 880,000 bats a year and are wiping out so many threatened bats that some species may become endangered unless preventative action is taken.

The big challenge is that bat conservation experts and scientists don’t know how to stop or reduce turbine collisions.  They don’t really know why bats are interacting with turbines to the extent that they are.  Do turbines attract bats?  Do turbines’ bright lights or just their silhouettes stimulate an attraction response?

The U.S. Department of Energy has awarded $8 million to five research centers to develop strategies for deterring bats from wind turbines. 

One of these is Bat Conservation International, which is an organization whose mission is to accelerate research to address knowledge gaps in bat ecology and behavior and develop technologies and industry methods to reduce fatality of bats at wind farms.  Among the approaches to be tested is limiting the use of nighttime lighting on wind farms to make migrating bats less likely to fly through blades. 

Another team at Boise State University is designing ultrasonic noisemakers to scare off bats. 

In announcing the new program, the Department of Energy states that wind energy must be appropriately and responsibly sited, which includes the protection of wildlife and their habitats.

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Experts Seek to Spare Bats From Wind Turbine Collisions

Photo, posted January 10, 2013, courtesy of Tom Shockey via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

Protecting Wetlands | Earth Wise

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Wetlands are distinct ecosystems that are flooded or saturated by water, either permanently or seasonally.  They include mangroves, marshes, swamps, forested wetlands, bogs, wet prairies, and vernal pools.   The feature that most wetlands share is soil or substrate that is at least periodically saturated with or covered by water.

Wetlands are some of the most threatened ecosystems in the world.  While wetlands can be affected by a variety of natural stressors, including erosion, droughts, and storms, human activities have been the major driver of wetland decline. 

But according to a new study by researchers from McGill University in Canada, the global loss of wetland areas since 1700 has likely been overestimated.  The research team calculated that the area of wetland ecosystems around the world has declined 21-35% since 1700 as a result of human activities – far less than the 50-87% decline estimated in other studies.  The study’s focus beyond regions with historically high wetland losses and its avoidance of possibly misleading extrapolations likely resulted in the lower estimate.      

According to the study, which was published in the journal Nature, more than 2.1 million square miles of wetlands have been lost during the past 300 years – an area roughly the size of India.  The five countries with the highest wetland losses are the United States, China, India, Russia and Indonesia. 

But discovering that fewer wetlands have been historically lost than previously thought gives researchers a second chance to protect wetlands.  The findings of the study will help researchers prioritize global conservation and restoration actions.

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A second chance to protect wetlands

Photo, posted February 2, 2005, courtesy of Jan Tik via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

Tracking Global Forest Changes | Earth Wise

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India is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world.  An estimated 47,000 plant species and 89,000 animal species can be found in India, with more than 10% of each thought to be on the list of threatened species.

India is also one of the 10 most forest-rich countries in the world.  Trees cover approximately 25% of the nation.  But this is still a significant decline from years past.  In fact, between the 1890s and 1990s, a combination of rapid development and resource overexploitation caused India to lose nearly 80% of its native forest area.  Today, as India’s forests continue to disappear, researchers are trying to help preserve what forest remains. 

Using satellite-monitoring data, researchers from The Ohio State University have developed a deep learning algorithm that could provide real-time land use and land cover maps for parts of India. 

The land use monitoring system was trained using satellite data from Norway’s International Climate and Forests Initiative.  By combining this data with a global land cover map produced by Tsinghua University in China, the researcher team’s deep learning model was able to acquire a more detailed type of base map of the area.  Using their model, the researchers were able to process 10 monthly maps.  Their research was recently  presented at the annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union.   

Using these maps, the researchers were able to detect seasonal shifts across india.  These include changes to barren land, how crop land was affected by monsoons, and the distribution of forests in mountainous regions. 

Understanding the impact of these seasonal changes will help scientists better predict the effects of climate change on forests.

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Using deep learning to monitor India’s disappearing forest cover

Photo, posted January 20, 2013, courtesy of Frontier Official via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

The Snail Darter Is Safe | Earth Wise

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The snail darter is a three-inch-long snail-eating fish that was once only found in the Little Tennessee River.  When that river was going to be dammed by the Tellico Dam under construction in the 1970s, the snail darter was listed on the endangered species list and the little fish subsequently became the subject of a legal battle that made it all the way up to the U.S. Supreme Court.   With the dam project 95% complete in 1978, the Supreme Court blocked further construction, citing the Endangered Species Act.  A year later, Congress exempted the project from the requirements of the Act, thereby clearing the way for the completion of the dam.

In order to save the snail darter, biologists transplanted the fish into several other nearby rivers and waterways.  In addition, the Tennessee Valley Authority modified the operation of the Tellico Dam to release more oxygen-rich water downstream.  Beyond those measures, the river cleanup under the Clean Water Act further aided the fish’s recovery.

In 1984, the snail darter was removed from the endangered species list and was listed as threatened or vulnerable.  Recently, the U.S. Department of the Interior officially removed the snail darter from the federal list of threatened and endangered wildlife. 

The snail darter is the fifth fish species to be delisted because its population has recovered.  It is the first in the eastern United States.  With better management of water releases at dams, many other imperiled aquatic species could be recovered.

Overall, more than 50 plants and animals have recovered under federal protection, including American alligators, humpback whales, peregrine falcons, and bald eagles.

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Once at Center of Controversial Case, the Snail Darter Fish Is No Longer Threatened

Photo, posted July 22, 2015, courtesy of The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

Environmental DNA | Earth Wise

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Marine protected areas are sections of the ocean where governments place limits on human activity.  They are intended to provide long-term protection to important marine and coastal ecosystems.  MPAs are important because they can protect depleted, threatened, rare, and endangered species and populations.

In January 2020, the Republic of Palau in the western Pacific Ocean created one of the world’s largest marine protected areas.  The Palau National Marine Sanctuary covers 80% of the country’s economic zone and prohibits all extractive activity like fishing and mining over a 183,000 square mile area in order for the island nation to ensure its food security and grow its economy in the face of climate change.

The Marine Sanctuary is an ambitious enterprise.  The question is how Palau can evaluate whether and how well it is working?

A team of scientists from Stanford University and Palau-based colleagues are making use of Environmental DNA – or eDNA – technology to monitor the large-scale marine protected area.  eDNA is the cells, waste, viruses, and microorganisms that plants and animals leave behind.  Samples of marine eDNA effectively provide a fingerprint of the organisms that have recently passed through the water in a given area.  This gives scientists a way to assess an ecosystem’s biodiversity and keep track of the types of species inhabiting a specific area.  Using eDNA, it is possible to keep track of all the  organisms that live below the surface and learn about things we can’t even see.

The team has embarked on a program of periodic sampling of the waters off Palau and hope to be able to monitor the results of establishing the Marine Sanctuary.

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eDNA: Bringing biodiversity to the surface

Photo, posted June 12, 2013, courtesy of Gregory Smith via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Climate Change And Forest Loss | Earth Wise

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India is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world.  An estimated 47,000 plant species and 89,000 animal species can be found in India, with more than 10% of each thought to be on the list of threatened species. 

India is also among the top ten countries in the world in terms of total forest coverage.  According to Indian government data, the total forest and tree cover in India is 312,000 square miles, which is 24.62% of the geographical area of the country.

However, forest loss in India has been a problem for many decades driven largely (researchers thought) by land use change.  But it turns out that climate change may also have been contributing to forest loss, and its impact is projected to become an even bigger problem in the coming years. 

In the first ever national-scale study of the relationship between forest loss and rainfall and temperature trends in India, researchers from the University of Reading in the U.K. found that climate change may have contributed to large declines in forest since the turn of the century.

The study, which was recently published in the journal Global Change Biology, found far greater forest losses were observed where and when the climate was changing most rapidly.  Decreases in rainfall had the strongest impact on forest loss. 

These findings exacerbate concerns about the already-worrying levels of deforestation in the country, and contradict official reports that have shown relatively small decreases in forest coverage in recent years. 

The research team warns that rapid changes to the climate in some regions will require targeted preservation action to reduce the risk to biodiversity in India. 

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Indian forest loss ‘worse than feared’ due to climate change

Photo, posted January 20, 2013, courtesy of Dicky Broadhurst / Frontier Official via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Lighted Nets Protect Marine Wildlife | Earth Wise

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Gillnets are walls or curtains of netting that hang in the water to trap fish.  They are one of the most extensively used fishing gear in coastal regions throughout the world’s oceans.  While they are very effective at catching targeted fish species, they are not discriminating.  As a result, they carry significant risk of bycatch – the accidental capture of unwanted species as well as other interactions with various marine animals.

Researchers from The Wildlife Conservation Society, NOAA Fisheries, Arizona State University, and the National Fisheries and Aquaculture Institute of Mexico have recently published a study showing that using lighted gillnets reduced overall bycatch by 63%, including a 95% reduction in sharks, skates, and rays, and an 81% reduction in Humboldt squid. 

Gillnets often catch endangered, threatened, and protected species such as sharks, sea turtles, marine mammals, and seabirds, as well as unwanted species and non-marketable juvenile target fish species.  The bycatch animals are often dead or injured and are generally dumped overboard.

Illuminating gillnets with LED lights has emerged over the past decade as an effective tool to reduce bycatch of endangered sea turtles.  The new study is the first detailed examination of the effectiveness of illumination for other vulnerable species.

Gillnets are ubiquitous because they are inexpensive and catch everything that passes them.  Global populations of sharks, skates, and rays have declined as a result of bycatch and illegal fishing. The results of this study are encouraging because they provide a practical solution for increasing the selectivity of gillnets and avoiding bycatch. 

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Lighted Nets Dramatically Reduce Bycatch of Sharks and Other Wildlife While Making Fishing More Efficient

Photo, posted September 19, 2015, courtesy of Jim Bahn via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Crops Threatened With Extinction | Earth Wise

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Crop variety and diversity are critically important for global food security as well as for the livelihoods of millions of people.  This diversity entails both the different species of food crops as well as the so-called farmer varieties of crops that in many cases have been cultivated and safeguarded for millennia.

It is well-known that many of these crops and varieties have been rapidly disappearing, but data has been scarce on just how many have been lost, how many we are losing, and which ones are the most threatened going forward.

A new study utilizes a methodology known as the Varietal Threat Index, which was developed by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture.  The study assessed about 600 farmers from seven Indian states, covering five different agroecological areas.  The farmers were selected based on their knowledge of crops and varieties across the 17 study sites.

The farmers listed the crops and varieties grown in their households, noted their uses, and indicated their spread and abundance, including information on varieties grown during the previous ten years which were no longer grown.

The results of the study showed that while there is a significant diversity of landraces – which are local varieties of species developed over time – more than 50% are threatened.  The trend is that crops and varieties mostly used for consumption are most often under threat, whereas varieties with multiple uses are less likely to be threatened.

Studies of this type can aid the development of targets and indicators to monitor the global status of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and help inform urgent priority conservation actions.

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More than half of surveyed crop varieties are under threat of extinction, according to study in India

Photo, posted February 21, 2014, courtesy of Atibordee Kongprepan via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Assisted Colonization | Earth Wise

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As the pace of climate change continues to quicken, many species seem to be unable to keep up and could face extinction as a result.   There is a potential strategy for people to help species reach places with more suitable physical and biological conditions.  People could carry endangered animals to habitats cut off by mountains, rivers, or human-made barriers.  They could plant endangered trees higher up mountain slopes or to locations further north.  Such actions have been termed assisted colonization.

People have been moving species around the world throughout human history for various reasons either intentionally or inadvertently.  But as a conservation strategy, assisted colonization is quite controversial.

The argument is whether the risk of moving species to more favorable conditions outweighs the risk of inaction.  The salvation of one species could mean the destruction of another.   A species that seems perfectly innocuous when moved to one place can become a rampant invader in another.

An upcoming international conference on Biological Diversity to be held this fall in China may take up the issue of creating a set of guidelines on assisted colonization.   Such guidelines would help people assess which species to focus on; where, when, and how to move them; how to weigh the risks of action and inaction; and how to conduct such actions across international borders.  Assisted colonization may be useful in some instances and not in others.  There needs to be a way for the world to decide whether it is warranted or not.  With climate change posing a growing threat to many of the world’s species, this is an issue that should be addressed.

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Amid Climate Pressures, a Call for a Plan to Move Endangered Species

Photo, posted July 16, 2014, courtesy of Mark Spangler via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Bees Threatening Bees | Earth Wise

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Domesticated honeybees are an essential part of our agricultural system, being responsible for one in every three bites of food Americans consume and contributing $15 billion a year to the value of the nation’s crop production.  Millions of bee colonies are trucked across the country every year to pollinate cranberries, melons, broccoli, blueberries, and cherries, and also to produce honey.

After the growing seasons, honeybees are trucked to various locations to rest and rebuild their population and to replenish bees lost to disease and pesticides.  Some of these locations are in national forests.  Thousands of hives belonging to 112 apiaries are currently permitted in national forests by the Department of Agriculture.  This presents a problem because these hives are being permitted on public lands with virtually no environmental review and with little consideration of the impact these colonies can have on local wild bee populations.

The 4,000 wild bee species in the U.S. consume up to 95% of local available pollen.  Nearly 40 federally listed threatened or endangered species of bees, butterflies, and flower flies depend on national forest land for their survival.  And now the pollinators in these places, which were once refuges for these species and others, increasingly face competition from millions of domesticated honeybees.

Honeybees are super-foraging machines and are literally taking the pollen out of the mouths of other bees and pollinators.  Honeybees themselves have been facing numerous problems from habitat loss, pesticides, and other stress factors.  So, what is happening is essentially a pollinator habitat crunch that carries long-term implications for the U.S. food supply.  We need to find some answers and the sooner the better.

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Will Putting Honey Bees on Public Lands Threaten Native Bees?

Photo, posted August 9, 2015, courtesy of Tak H. via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Sharks On The Decline | Earth Wise

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During the past 70 years, global shark populations have been on the decline.   Many species have become threatened or endangered.  Conservation efforts have been underway in many places, but shark populations continue to be at risk because of over-fishing and habitat loss.

A comprehensive study by marine biologists at Texas A&M University deployed more than 15,000 baited remote underwater video stations on 371 coral reefs in 58 countries.   The study included 59 different shark species in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans.  The researchers were surprised to find that no sharks at all were detected in almost 20% of the locations surveyed and were almost completely absent from coral reefs in several nations. 

Scientists believe that demand for shark products, such as fins and meat, and bycatch (that is, sharks captured in nets by fisherman trapping other kinds of fish) are strong contributors to the widespread declines in shark numbers around the world.

The study shows that if corrective steps are not taken in regions where marine management is still ineffective, continued depletion of shark populations is highly likely. 

Sharks have important roles in marine ecosystems.  When their habitats deteriorate and their populations decrease, ecosystem stability and health is degraded because sharks help regulate prey populations.

Some countries, notably the Bahamas, are combating the problem by providing sanctuaries for sharks where fishing and harvesting is prohibited.  Such places support some of the healthiest shark populations in the world.  However, the decline of coral reefs is just another challenge facing shark populations around the world.

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Study Shows Alarming Decline In Shark Numbers Around The World

Photo, posted January 9, 2017, courtesy of Kris-Mikael Krister via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Wildlife Bridges

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Highway accidents involving animals are a big problem for both people and animals.  About 200 people die every year in the U.S. as a result of collisions with animals.  In total, one to two million large animals are killed by motorists every year.  And these crashes are expensive:  deer-car collisions cost an average of more than $8,000 each; elk-vehicle collisions about $25,000; and moose-vehicle collisions over $44,000. 

In the United States, there are 21 threatened and endangered species whose very survival is threatened by road mortalities.   These include Key deer in Florida, bighorn sheep in California, and red-bellied turtles in Alabama.

One solution that has been quite effective around the world in reducing car-animal collisions is wildlife overpasses and underpasses.  Crossings and fencing that guide animals over or under highways reduce collisions by 85-95%.

These traffic-spanning bridges and tunnels have been popular in Europe since the 1950s.  The overpasses usually look much like regular overpasses for cars but are decked out with native flora.  The underpasses, which assist shyer and smaller animals, are typically invisible to drivers.

Washington State has recently started building wildlife bridges and underpasses on Interstate 90.  These passes will allow elk, black bears, mountain lions, pika, and even trout to traverse what was once a near-impenetrable barrier of road.

Some animals that are accustomed to human structures start using the crossings almost immediately.  For others, there is learning curve.  As in many things, the early adapters are important as they provide paths and model behavior that more reticent animals learn to follow.

Wildlife bridges are a very good thing for wildlife and for people.

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How wildlife bridges over highways make animals—and people—safer

Photo, posted July 22, 2017, courtesy of David Fulmer via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Fish And Ships

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Solutions to overfishing of certain tuna and shark populations have been hindered by some significant unknowns:  where the fishing is happening, and where the fish are.  But researchers from Stanford University have recently shed some light on this mystery. 

According to a paper recently published in the journal Science Advances, the researchers have developed a map of shark, tuna, and ship movements that could help ocean managers identify regions of the sea where vulnerable species may be at risk. 

The researchers’ work builds on a 2018 study in which four years of satellite vessel movement data was used to develop a machine learning algorithm that mapped the footprint of 70,000 different fishing vessels around the world.  In their paper, the researchers zeroed in on the activities of 900 vessels from 12 countries in the northeast Pacific Ocean to figure out to what degree fishing fleets, sharks, and tunas overlapped. 

The researchers combined the vessel data with the ocean habitat preferences of sharks and tunas obtained from a decade-long tracking program called Tagging of Pacific Predators (or TOPP).  According to the IUCN, most of the 876 individuals tagged in TOPP belong to species that are either threatened or near-threatened.

By synthesizing this data, researchers were able to map where sharks and tunas would have the highest overlap with commercial fishing vessels.  Increasing the transparency of where fish meets fleets will allow ocean managers to determine where international protections may be needed. 

The United Nations is currently developing the world’s first legally binding treaty to protect international waters.  The Stanford University researchers hope their findings can help with this treaty’s formulation. 

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Tunas, sharks and ships at sea

Photo, posted June 20, 2011, courtesy of Mike Baird via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Endangered Language Species

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There are approximately 7,000 languages spoken in the world today but only about half of them are expected to survive this century.  There are many factors contributing to the decline in languages.  Perhaps the most significant is globalization, which pushes countries and individuals to shift to national or international languages for economic reasons.   Other factors include the lack of support for regional languages in educational systems and mass media, persecution of minority linguistic groups by governments, and disruption of communities during war and emigration.

Predicting which languages will survive and which won’t is difficult.  A potential tipping point for languages is the same one affecting the survival of species:  climate change.  Many small linguistic communities are located on islands and coastlines that are vulnerable to hurricanes and rising sea levels.  Other communities live in places where increases in temperatures and erratic rainfall threaten traditional farming and fishing economies.

These climate-related changes will force communities to relocate,creating climate change refugees. Dispersing these people will lead to the splintering of linguistic communities and the need for the use of other languages.  Such changes will place additional pressures on languages that are already struggling to survive.

There are endangered languages in many places around the world.  Some are exotic such as the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia, which is home to dozens of distinct languages spoken by no more than a few thousand people. Others are much closer to home, such as in indigenous communities in Canada.

The rich tapestry of human language is just another of many things threatened by the changing climate.

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The Conversation: The impact of climate change on language loss

Photo, posted May 19, 2009, courtesy of Flickr. 

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Is The World’s Largest Sea Turtle No Longer Endangered?

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The rapid disappearance of many plants and animals around the world has many scientists saying we are experiencing a sixth mass extinction – the first since the dinosaurs were wiped out some 66 million years ago.  Despite all sorts of conservation efforts, living things are struggling as a result of climate change, habitat loss, and countless other natural and manmade pressures.  Conservation success stories have been few and far between. 

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Pine Barrens Threatened

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Pine barrens occur throughout the northeastern U.S. from New Jersey to Maine.  They are plant communities that occur on dry, acidic, infertile soils dominated by grasses, forbs, low shrubs, and small to medium-sized pines.  The Pine Bush Preserve in Albany, New York is one of the larger inland pine barrens in the country.

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