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Carbon Capture Booming | Earth Wise

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For the world to reach a state of net-zero emissions, it is going to require more than the ongoing transition to renewable energy sources.  There will also need to be efforts to capture the emissions from sources that can’t easily eliminate their pollution.  These include steel mills, cement plants, and other industrial sites.  At least for the foreseeable future,  a number of essential industries have no other viable path to deep decarbonization, and carbon capture and storage projects are the only promising strategy on hand.

Companies use CCS to filter emissions from fossil fuel power plants and industrial facilities and then bury the captured carbon underground, often in deep caverns.

Over the past 12 months, the pipeline for carbon capture and storage projects has grown by 44%.  This year, firms have announced 61 new CCS projects, bringing the total number of commercial projects in the global pipeline to 196, which includes about 30 that are already in operation.  Another 11 are under construction, and 153 are in development.

When all of these projects are completed, they will have the capacity to capture a total of about 270 million tons of carbon dioxide per year.  Estimates are that there need to be 1,400 million tons locked away each year to reach zero-emissions.  So, the existing project pipeline constitutes about 20% of what is ultimately needed.

The recently passed Inflation Reduction Act boosts tax incentives for carbon capture.  Analysts believe this could multiply U.S. deployment of the technology more than 10-fold.  Globally, it is expected that CCS will continue its rapid growth as countries ramp up investments in the technology.

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Carbon Capture Projects See Meteoric Growth in 2022

Photo, posted August 22, 2022, courtesy of Nenad Stojkovic via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

Safely Storing Carbon | Earth Wise

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As carbon dioxide levels continue to increase in the atmosphere and emissions reductions aren’t happening as fast as needed, there is growing interest in carbon capture and storage technologies.

The idea is to capture the CO2 emitted from industrial processes or from the burning of fossil fuels in power generation, and then permanently store it out of harm’s way.  There are several different types of sites where the CO2 might be stored.  Deep saline aquifers are particularly desirable for the purpose, but depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs are commonplace and relatively simple to use.  These are oil and gas wells that have been drained of their resources.

In many cases, CO2 has already been injected into these depleted wells as a means of enhanced oil recovery.  Therefore, such wells provide a unique opportunity to study what happens to carbon dioxide when it’s stored in these places.

Researchers from Oxford University recently published a paper in the journal Nature that compared the state of depleted wells with injected carbon dioxide to that of wells without the injected gas.  They found that nearly 3/4 of the CO2 was dissolved in the groundwater.  Unexpectedly, they also found that 13-19% of the carbon dioxide was converted into methane by methanogenic bacteria.  Methane is less soluble, less compressible, and less reactive than carbon dioxide.

Producing methane in these wells is therefore undesirable.  Deeper sites that have temperatures too high for the bacteria to thrive are much more suitable.  This research is important for identifying future carbon capture and storage sites and for designing long-term monitoring programs that are essential for low-risk, long-term carbon storage.

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Safer carbon capture and storage

Photo, posted November 6, 2015, courtesy of CL Baker via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Decarbonizing The Most Polluting Heavy Industries | Earth Wise

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The production of steel, cement, and ammonia accounts for about 20% of the carbon dioxide humans pour into the atmosphere.  Modern cities are largely constructed from concrete and steel and most of our food is grown using fertilizer made from ammonia. 

The most widely discussed solutions to decarbonizing these industries are green hydrogen and carbon capture and storage or CCS.

Steel manufacture is responsible for 11% of society’s emissions.  Most production starts by burning coal in a blast furnace. Using CCS could reduce emissions from burning the coal.  But the blast furnace could be eliminated entirely by the use of electrolysis to produce the pure iron needed to make steel.  This would be extremely energy-intensive but using a low-carbon source like green hydrogen could greatly reduce the emissions from making steel.

Ammonia is made by producing hydrogen from natural gas and then combining it with atmospheric nitrogen.  Both the hydrogen production and ammonia synthesis are energy intensive.  Using green hydrogen would eliminate emissions from the hydrogen production itself and new research on catalysts aims at lower-temperature, less-energy intensive ammonia synthesis.

Decarbonizing cement manufacturing is perhaps the toughest challenge.  Cement is made in a high-temperature kiln, typically heated by burning fossil fuels.  The process converts calcium carbonate and clay into a hard solid called clinker.  The main byproduct of that is even more carbon dioxide.  Burning green hydrogen and capturing carbon emission are about the best hope for reducing cement manufacturing emissions.

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Can the World’s Most Polluting Heavy Industries Decarbonize?

Photo, posted June 30, 2009, courtesy of Portland Bolt via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

The Danger Of Relying On Future Technology | Earth Wise

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The need to mitigate the effects of climate change has been a global focus for about 40 years and has seen ever-changing views on what actions are needed.  The historical record has been defined by over-reliance on promises of new technology to solve climate change.  Looking to future technology to save the environment has been an excuse to postpone necessary action and avoid inconvenient changes in how we do things.

A study at Lancaster University in the UK published in Nature Climate Change exposes how such promises have raised expectations of more effective policy options becoming available in the future and have enabled the continued politics of inadequate action and skirting around the truth.

Even after four decades, rather than acting forcefully to reduce emissions, we are hoping that nuclear fusion power, giant carbon sucking machines, ice-restoration using vast numbers of wind-powered pumps, and spraying particulates into the atmosphere can address the climate crisis rather than dramatic changes in fossil fuel use.

The researchers mapped the history of climate targets in five phases.  Early on, the focus was on improved energy efficiency, large-scale enhancement of carbon sinks, and nuclear power.  Next, the focus was on cutting emissions with efficiency, fuel switching, and carbon capture and storage.  After that, bioenergy was the major focus.  Then, global carbon budgeting and potential negative emission technologies.  Currently, the focus is on temperature outcomes rather than emission targets.

Each novel promise competes with existing ideas and downplays any sense of urgency.   The researchers conclude that putting our hopes on yet more new technologies is unwise.  The time to act is now.

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Why relying on new technology won’t save the planet

Photo, posted February 13, 2019, courtesy of Jonathan Cutrer via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Small-Scale Climate Solutions | Earth Wise

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In order to meet international climate targets, we need to cut greenhouse gas emissions in half over the next decade and reach net-zero by mid-century.  Achieving this will require unprecedented and rapid changes in how energy is supplied, distributed and used.

Researchers at several European universities collected data on a wide variety of energy technologies at different scales and tested how well they performed in accomplishing an accelerated low-carbon transformation. 

Large-scale, costly, non-divisible or so-called lumpy technologies, such as utility-scale generation, nuclear power, carbon capture and storage, high-speed transportation, and whole-building retrofits are often seen as the most effective way to achieve emission-reduction goals. A key finding of their study is that low-carbon technologies that are smaller scale and can be mass deployed are more likely to enable a faster transition to net-zero emissions.

So-called granular options include solar panels, electricity storage batteries, heat pumps, smart thermostats, electric bikes, and ride-share services.  These options scale not by becoming larger but by replicating.

Small-scale options are quicker to deploy, their technologies have shorter lifespans and are less complex, so innovations and improvements can be brought to market more rapidly.  They are also more widely accessible and help create more jobs, giving governments a sound basis for strengthening climate policies.

However, smaller-scale technologies are not a panacea.  There are no small-scale replacements for industrial plants and other kinds of major infrastructure, but in many different contexts, they can outperform larger-scale alternatives as a means of accelerating the low-carbon transformation.

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Smaller scale solutions needed for rapid progress towards emissions targets

Photo, posted April 8, 2019, courtesy of the City of St Pete via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

A Powerful Case For Protecting Whales

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Efforts to mitigate climate change typically face two major challenges.  One is to find effective ways to reduce the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide.  The other is how to raise enough money to implement climate mitigation strategies. 

Many proposed solutions to climate change, like carbon capture and storage, are complex, expensive, and in some cases, untested.  What if there was a low-tech solution that was effective and economical?

Well, it turns out there is one, and it comes from a surprisingly simple, “no-tech” strategy to capture CO2: increase global whale populations. 

According to a recent analysis by economists with the International Monetary Fund, whales help fight climate change by sequestering CO2 in the ocean. 

Whales sequester carbon in a few ways.  They hoard it in their fat and protein-rich bodies, stockpiling tons of carbon apiece.  When whales die, they turn into literal carbon sinks on the ocean floor.  While alive, whales dive to feed on tiny marine organisms like krill and plankton before surfacing to breathe and excrete. Those latter activities release an enormous plume of nutrients, including nitrogen, iron, and phosphorous, into the water.  These so-called “poo-namis” stimulate the growth of phytoplankton, microscopic marine algae that pull CO2 out of the air and return oxygen to the air via photosynthesis.  Phytoplankton are responsible for every other breath we take, contributing at least 50% of all oxygen to the atmosphere and capturing approximately 40% of all CO2 produced. 

With other economic benefits like ecotourism factored in, economists estimate that each whale is worth $2 million over its lifetime, making the entire global population possibly a one trillion dollar asset to humanity.

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How much is a whale worth?

Photo, posted June 12, 2013, courtesy of Gregory Smith via Flickr.

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Growing Rocks To Store Carbon

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The US Geological Survey recently published a comprehensive review of geological carbon storage in sedimentary rocks through carbon mineralization.   That is the process by which carbon dioxide becomes a solid mineral, such as a form of carbonate.  Certain rocks undergo a chemical reaction when exposed to carbon dioxide and turn into different minerals as a result.

The idea is to use carbon mineralization as a way to permanently store carbon dioxide that has been captured from power plant emissions, other industrial activities, or even directly from the atmosphere.

Two basic approaches are injecting the CO2 deep underground or exposing it to crushed rocks at the surface.  The two types of rock best suited for mineralization through injection are basalt and various ultramafic rocks.  Pilot studies have shown that injection into basalt can lead to mineralization in under two years.

Exposing carbon dioxide to crushed rock at the surface generally makes use of crushed mining waste.  Mineralization can be much faster in this case because there is more surface area on the crushed rock where mineralization occurs.  (However, the quantities of rock available at the surface are much less than what exists deep underground).

Like all carbon capture and storage approaches, the key consideration is cost.  The USGS study estimates that underground injection would cost around $30 per metric ton of CO2.  The crushed rock approach might only cost $8 per metric ton, but that assumes the crushed rock is already available.  If it must be newly mined, the costs would obviously go up significantly.  To put this into perspective, a typical car produces around 4 metric tons of CO22 per year.  So, it would cost somewhere between $30 and $120 a year to eliminate the emissions from one car.  Perhaps that is a price we need to pay until we ditch gasoline cars.

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How Growing Rocks Can Help Reduce Carbon Emissions

Photo, posted October 17, 2011, courtesy of Glen Bledsoe via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Making Coal To Fight Climate Change

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Coal is the most harmful fossil fuel for the environment and, furthermore, for human health.  Its use has stubbornly persisted because it is so plentiful and, therefore, cheap.  As a result, a big part of efforts to fight climate change is finding a way to remove the carbon dioxide dumped into the atmosphere by the combustion of coal.

Researchers at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology in Australia have developed a remarkable technology that in effect reverses the process that has led to soaring CO2 levels in the atmosphere.  They have found a way to pull carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and turn it into coal, after which it can be stored cheaply and safely underground.

Most previous carbon capture and storage technologies have focused on compressing carbon dioxide gas into a liquid form and then pumping it into rock formations.  Such techniques are rather expensive, require lots of energy, and pose risks that the liquid CO2 could escape from its underground storage sites.  More recently, research on solid metal catalysts has led to the possibility of turning CO2 into solid carbon, but most of these reactions require very high temperatures and use a lot of energy.

The new technique developed at RMIT uses a new class of catalysts based on metal alloys.  With a small jolt of electricity applied at room temperature, CO2 can be converted into solid carbon – basically, coal.

If this technique can be industrialized economically, it would be like turning back the clock by taking carbon dioxide that entered the atmosphere by the combustion of coal and turning it back into coal and putting it back underground.  It seems like excellent environmental justice.

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Scientists Turn Atmospheric CO2 Into Coal

Photo, posted March 16, 2015, courtesy of Will Fisher via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Turning Emissions Into Fuel

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Reducing carbon dioxide emissions is an essential element in mitigating climate change.  The best approach is to not produce the stuff in the first place and the ongoing transition away from fossil fuels is trying to do just that.  But realistically, fossil fuels will be with us for a long time to come.  Given that, additional approaches are necessary.

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Fuel From Greenhouse Gases

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Carbon dioxide and methane are the two greenhouse gases that are having the greatest impact on the global climate.  There are basically three ways to prevent them from getting into the atmosphere:  don’t emit them, trap them and store them away, or turn them into something useful.

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Storing Carbon in the Ocean

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As carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere continue to rise, it may be that clean energy technologies, electric cars, and other methods of reducing emissions may not be enough.  Carbon sequestration – sucking carbon out of the atmosphere – is seen by many as a crucial part of the solution.

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Trees Are Not Enough

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Trees are nature’s way of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.  Growing plants take up CO2 and store it in the form of their roots, stems and leaves.  And in fact, a significant factor in the growing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been the extensive deforestation that has gone on over the past couple of centuries.

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Clean Coal For Real

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We have heard the term “clean coal” for years, mostly from politicians and in coal company advertising.  The concept sounds good:  burn coal but don’t produce carbon dioxide emissions.  While there have been various small-scale tests of technologies to accomplish this, it has not actually been a viable option for the power industry.

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Accidental Ethanol From Carbon Dioxide

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Scientists at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee were trying to find a series of chemical reactions that could turn carbon dioxide into a useful fuel.  But the unexpected occurred:  they found that the first step in their process actually got the job done all by itself.   The reaction turns CO2 into ethanol, which is already used to power generators and vehicles.

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Turning CO2 Into Rock

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One of the strategies to tackle the problem of increasing greenhouse gas emissions that are resulting in climate change is Carbon Capture and Storage or CCS, which seeks to prevent CO2 from entering the atmosphere and to instead tuck it away somewhere.   A longstanding approach to doing it is to store it underground in voids such as abandoned oil and gas reservoirs.  There are various complications associated with this idea, not the least of which being potential leakage of the stored CO2.

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Recycling CO2

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The X Prize Foundation provides financial incentives for innovative solutions to various technical challenges.   Topics have ranged from developing spacecraft to trying to create a real-world version of the Star Trek tricorder.   Last year, the foundation launched a $20 million challenge to come up with technologies by the year 2020 that turn carbon dioxide captured from the smokestacks of power plants into useful products.

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Clean Fossil Fuel Electricity

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Renewable energy sources like wind and solar power are getting cheaper all the time and are, in many places, competing head to head on price with traditional fossil fuel generation.  The ultimate goal is to replace polluting energy sources entirely, but even under the most optimistic scenarios, fossil fuel plants aren’t just going to disappear very quickly.

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Carbon Capture Update

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The global community is increasingly making commitments to reduce the amount of carbon emissions in the atmosphere.  More and more carbon-free renewable energy sources are being used all the time.  But despite the tremendous growth in solar and wind power, fossil fuels still provide about 80% of the world’s energy.  Coal still provides about 40% of worldwide electricity.  Realistically, these numbers can only go down at a relatively gradual pace.

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