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Crops May Need To Move | Earth Wise

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California has unique micro-climate diversity that creates ideal growing conditions for a wide range of crops.  One third of the vegetables and two-thirds of the fruits and nuts we eat in this country are grown on the more than 76,000 farms in California.  But as the climate continues to change, many farmers have started to worry about where and when crops can be grown in the future.   Within the next 20 years or so, some parts of California may become too hot and dry to sustain agricultural production.

According to new research from the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, by the years 2045-2049, warmer temperatures will have a significant effect on cool-season crops such as broccoli and lettuce such that their growing season will need to shift.  On the other hand, warm-season crops like cantaloupe, tomatoes, and carrots will need to move to entirely new growing locations.

The study looked at five key crops that are produced more in California than elsewhere and studied the climate conditions under which they prosper and those under which they fail.  They established the range of conditions for which the crops can remain successful.  Finally they looked at climate projections for various parts of the state.

California’s agriculture is an essential part of our food security, so it is important to predict how future warming will affect when and where crops can be grown.  Changing these things presents challenges.  For example, when considering relocating crops, growers have specialized knowledge of their land and their crops.  If crops need to move to a new area, either the farmers have to move to that area, or they have to grow a different crop.  Either way, it presents a practical and economic burden on the farmer.

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Some of America’s Favorite Produce Crops May Need to Get a Move On by 2045

Photo, posted June 16, 2011, courtesy of the U.S. Department of Agriculture via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Land Use Change And Flooding | Earth Wise

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Land use change refers to the conversion of a piece of land’s use by humans from one purpose to another. Land use change is commonly associated with biodiversity loss and increased greenhouse gas emissions.  But how does land use change impact water cycles? 

According to researchers from the University of Göttingen in Germany, IPB University, and BMKG (both in Indonesia), the expansion of monocultures, such as rubber and oil palm plantations, leads to more frequent and more severe flooding.  The researchers explain the increase in flooding “with a complex interplay of ecohydrological and social processes, including soil degradation in monocultures, the expansion of oil palm plantations into wetlands, and the construction of flood protection dams.” 

For the study, which was recently published in the journal Ecology & Society, the research team interviewed nearly 100 Indonesian farmers, villagers, and decision-makers in Sumatra.  The team supplemented its research with data on precipitation, river and groundwater levels, soil properties, and regional mapping. 

During large-scale land use change – like plantation expansions – newly-compacted soil causes rainwater to runoff as opposed to being absorbed.  As more plantations are established in floodplains, the owners try to control flooding on their land by building barriers.  But these dams often lead to increased flooding on neighboring lands.  This understandably triggers social tensions between other farmers and plantation owners.     

In order to reduce the negative impact of land use change on the water cycle, the research team suggests soil protection and improved planning – especially in floodplains – would be a good place to start.  

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Land use change leads to increased flooding in Indonesia

Photo, posted October 8, 2018, courtesy of Artem Beliaikin via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Hacking Photosynthesis | Earth Wise

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A team led by the University of Illinois has been pursuing a project called Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency or RIPE, which has the aim of improving photosynthesis in order to provide farmers with higher-yielding crops in an increasingly challenging climate.  Photosynthesis is the natural, sunlight-powered process that plants use to convert carbon dioxide into sugars that fuel growth, development, and for us, crop yield.

If we think of photosynthesis as a factory line composed of multiple machines, the growth of plants is limited by the slowest machines in the line.  The RIPE project has identified some steps in photosynthesis that are slower than others and are attempting to enable plants to build more machines to speed up those slower steps.

The researchers modeled a total of 170 steps in the process of photosynthesis to identify how plants could manufacture sugars more efficiently.  In the study, the team increased crop growth by 27% by resolving two constraints:  one in the first part of photosynthesis where plants turn light energy into chemical energy and one in the second part when carbon dioxide is turned into sugars.

The researchers effectively hacked photosynthesis by adding a more efficient transport protein from algae to enhance the energy conversion process. 

In the greenhouse, these changes improved crop productivity by 52%, but in field trials, which are a more important test, these photosynthetic hacks boosted crop production by 27%.

Ultimately, the team hopes to translate these discoveries to a series of staple food crops, such as cassava, cowpea, corn, soybean and rice, which are needed to feed the world’s growing population this century.

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Photosynthetic hacks can boost crop yield, conserve water

Photo, posted June 14, 2017, courtesy of Alex Holyoake via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Birdseed And Weeds | Earth Wise

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More than 55 million adult Americans feed wild birds and along the way spend more than three billion dollars a year on bird food as well as nearly a billion on bird feeders, bird baths, bird houses and other bird feeding accessories.  Feeding birds is a very popular hobby in both the United States and the United Kingdom.

Researchers at the University of Missouri in Columbia Missouri investigated the content of 98 commercially available bird feed mixes.  They uncovered several significant things.

The various mixes contained seeds from 29 weed species and almost all of the mixes contained seeds for pigweed, which can be a significant threat to agriculture.  One in ten of the mixes contained Palmer amaranth or waterhemp seeds that demonstrated a resistance to glyphosphate.   Other common weed species found in many of the mixes were kochia, common ragweed, foxtail species, and wild buckweed.

The overall collection of seed mixes contained an average of 363 amaranthus seeds in each kilogram of bird feed.  Based on this, it is possible that 105 million amaranthus seeds are transported in bird feed mixes each year.

According to the researchers, it is difficult to estimate the exact role that commercial bird seed plays in spreading troublesome weed species into new regions, but it is clear that the widespread use of these seed mixes is a contributing factor to the spread of weeds.

The researchers recommend careful weed management in crop fields designated for bird feed, as well as sieving during packaging to reduce weed seed contamination.  They also noted that regulatory measures adopted in Europe to limit weed seed content in bird seed have proven to be effective.

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Examination of commercially available bird feed for weed seed contaminants

Photo, posted August 18, 2013, courtesy of Emma Craig via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Working Forest Buffers | Earth Wise

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More than 100,000 miles of U.S. rivers and streams are polluted by nitrogen and phosphorus, mostly from agricultural runoff.  In the past, forests grew naturally alongside these waterways and helped stabilize stream banks and decrease flooding while trapping and filtering pollutants.  But most of these forests have been cut down to make way for towns, cities, livestock, and crops.

Farmers are reluctant to retire valuable farmland with non-productive buffer planting.  But in Pennsylvania, there is an innovative program that encourages farmers to plant cash crops in waterway buffer zones that can help stabilize stream banks and clean up the waterways.  These plantings are called working buffers.

Strips of streamside land are replanted with native floodplain trees and shrubs.  These are known as riparian forest buffers.  Pennsylvania has instituted a grant program under which farmers and landowners plant these buffers and turn a profit.

Many of these buffers have three zones.  A conventional forest buffer that can be just 15 feet wide is composed of native woodland and stabilizes the bank with tree roots and enhances wildlife habitat.  A second zone, some 20 feet wide, is planted with trees and shrubs that can tolerate periodic flooding.  Apart from slowing floodwater and taking up nutrients, this zone can provide profits by planting trees like black walnut, hazelnut, persimmon, and elderberry.  Only hand harvesting is allowed.  A third zone, adjacent to conventional crop, can contain blueberries, raspberries, and decorative woody florals.

How many farmers can be enticed to create these riparian buffers remains to be seen, but they do represent a way to help farmers to reduce pollution and turn a profit along the way.

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A Movement Grows to Help Farmers Reduce Pollution and Turn a Profit

Photo, posted March 19, 2010, courtesy of the USDA via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Livestock And Sustainable Food Systems | Earth Wise

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Animal-based agriculture has endured a great deal of criticism with regard to its contributions to climate change and its other environmental impacts.  But its contributions to a sustainable food system are by no means all bad.  In fact, livestock play important roles in sustainable, regenerative agro-food systems.

Animals’ natural biological processes enable them to consume plant and food residues that are either indigestible by humans, unpalatable to people, or are no longer sellable for various reasons, all referred to as IUUB biomass.  There are many examples.

One dairy farm receives daily deliveries of apple waste from a processing facility that supplies apple slices for school lunches.  Another local dairy gets three truckloads of vegetable and fruit discards, along with expired bread products, each week.  No longer useful for consumers, these foodstuffs become feed for cattle rather than going to a landfill.  Even the booming market for plant-based foods like artificial meat for consumers has generated a surge of processing byproducts that can be consumed by livestock.

On a national scale, livestock are consuming millions of pounds of otherwise unusable IUUB created in the production of products like soybean and canola oils, orange juice, ethanol, and more.

While the livestock industry needs to keep working to minimize its environmental impact and there are many reasons to eat less meat, livestock farming is an integral part of our agro-food systems.  Farmers are embracing techniques to produce meat, milk and eggs as efficiently and sustainably as possible, minimizing agriculture’s climate-contributing footprint in the process.

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Amazing Cows Hold Promise in Pioneering Sustainable Food Systems

Photo, posted May 11, 2019, courtesy of Theo Stikkelman via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Keeping Plants Plump

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The leading cause of crop failures worldwide is drought.  Ironically, the very close runner-up is flooding.  Facing a changing and increasingly erratic climate, farmers need all the help they can get in protecting their crops.

Researchers at the University of California, Riverside, have created a chemical to help plants hold onto water, which could stem the tide of massive annual crop losses from drought.  Details of the team’s work is described in a paper published in Science.

The chemical is called Opabactin, but is also known as “OP.” OP is gamer slang for overpowered, referring to the best character or weapon in a game.

OP mimics abscisic acid, or ABA, which is the natural hormone produced by plants in response to drought stress.  ABA slows a plant’s growth, so it doesn’t consume more water than is available and doesn’t wilt.  OP is 10-times stronger than ABA, which makes it a super hormone.  It works fast.  Within hours, there is a measurable improvement in the amount of water plants release.  Because it works so quickly, OP could give farmers more flexibility in how they deal with drought.   Plants can’t predict the future, but if, for example, farmers think there is a reasonable chance of drought, they could make decisions such as to apply OP to improve crop yields.

The research team is now trying to find a second chemical tool.  Whereas OP slows down plant growth, the team wants to find a molecule that will accelerate it.  Such a molecule could be useful in controlled environments such as indoor greenhouses.  There are times when you want to speed up growth and times when you want to slow it down.

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Game changer: New chemical keeps plants plump

Photo, posted June 7, 2013, courtesy of Bayer CropScience UK via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Protecting Canola Crops From Frost

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Canola is one of Canada’s most valuable crops.  In fact, Canada is the world’s largest exporter of canola oil.  The international market for canola oil is $27 billion a year.  The oil is very popular because it has a relatively low amount of saturated fat, a substantial amount of monosaturated fat, and is very neutral tasting.

Canadian canola farmers worry a great deal about late season, non-lethal frosts because the frosts prevent chlorophyll – a photosynthetic pigment in the seeds – from breaking down, a process they call “degreening”.  The farmers seek to have high-quality yellow embryos at seed maturity.  When the harvest contains more than 2% of green seeds, it can no longer produce Grade No. 1 quality oil.  When green seeds are processed to extract canola oil, the chlorophyll in the seeds reduces the oil’s storability and quality.  As a result, farmers receive a lower price for frost-damaged green seed canola.  This costs Canadian farmers and estimated $150 million annually.

Researchers at the University of Calgary have developed gene-based technology to produce canola plants that can withstand late-season frost and still produce high-quality seed.  They identified a specific protein that controls chlorophyll breakdown and seed maturity.  Genetic manipulation is able to enhance the seed degreening system.  They were able to reduce the amount of chlorophyll in the genetically modified canola lines by 60% after the plants were exposed to non-lethal frost. 

Ultimately, the researchers plan to develop a method to incorporate the modification into canola hybrid lines in such a way that it will be readily accepted by consumers concerned about genetically modified organisms.

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New technology helps protect valuable canola crops from frost

Photo, posted August 29, 2018, courtesy of Tinker and Rove via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Pesticides In The Great Barrier Reef

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Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is one of the greatest natural wonders in the world and it has been under siege by warming waters and ocean acidification.  Widespread coral bleaching has damaged or destroyed large portions of the 1,400-mile long coral reef system.  But the effects of climate change are not the only threat to the reef.  Pesticides found in waterways that flow into the Great Barrier Reef are another serious problem.

According to a new study by the University of Queensland, the combined toxicity of 22 of the most common pesticides that flow into the Reef are not meeting pollution reduction targets.

Different pesticides affect different organisms.  Herbicides affect organisms that photosynthesize such as seagrass, corals, mangroves, and algae.  Insecticides affect insect larvae in freshwater, and crustaceans such as crabs, prawns, and lobsters.  Previous assessments have only examined individual pesticides and only for limited times.  The new study has utilized a methodology that estimates the combined toxicity of multiple pesticides found in the waterways that discharge into the Reef and does it for the entire wet season.

The research revealed that the pesticide reduction target set in the Australian Government’s Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan is not being met.  Only one natural resource management region – the Cape York region – was found to be meeting its target.

By having estimates of the risk posed by pesticides in the various regions and individual waterways, governments, farmers, and conservationists can see which areas pose the greatest risk and where to maximize efforts.  Stakeholders have to come together to reduce pesticide concentrations through better management practices and by using less toxic pesticides.

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High pesticide concentrations continue to enter Great Barrier Reef

Photo, posted July 29, 2010, courtesy of Kyle Taylor via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Mexico’s Wonder Plant

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In 1979, an American naturalist named Thomas Hallberg visiting a small town in Oaxaca, Mexico was amazed to find a type of local maize – or corn – that grew nearly 20 feet high in poor-quality soil even though the local farmers did not use any fertilizer.

The unique corn plant had aerial roots that grew a mucous-like gel just before harvest season.  It seemed totally implausible, but the plant seemed to be fixing its own nitrogen:  extracting it from the air and somehow making it useful to the plant.

In 1992, Hallberg returned with a group of Mexican scientists and collected samples to study in his lab.  His research showed that the maize indeed received nitrogen from the air through its aerial roots.  It took over 20 years to figure out what was going on in the plants.  It turns out that bacteria that thrive in the low-oxygen environment of the maize’s mucus pulls nitrogen from the air and feeds it to the plant.

Scientists will probably spend years figuring out if a commercial application of this indigenous maize is viable.  It isn’t guaranteed that the self-fertilizing trait of the plant can be bred into a commercial crop.  But if it can, the payoff would be huge.  Farmers spend more than $3 billion a year on corn fertilizer in the US alone.

A vexing problem is who should reap the financial benefits of the maize.  The isolated village where the plant is grown has already signed an agreement to share in any such benefits.   But there are other Oaxacan villages that also grow the plant. 

Mexico’s wonder plant is likely to be caught up in the growing issue of biopiracy, which is the exploitation of indigenous knowledge and biological resources without permission.

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Indigenous Maize: Who Owns the Rights to Mexico’s ‘Wonder’ Plant?

Photo credit: ALLEN VAN DEYNZE/UC DAVIS

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Intense Rainfall And Crops

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The warming of the planet does not necessarily imply local weather will be warmer or drier than average.  While heatwaves and droughts are increasingly common events in many places, so are intense rain events.

A new study led by scientists at the University of Illinois has found that intense rainfall is as damaging to the U.S. agricultural sector as heatwaves and excessive droughts.

The study examined more than three decades of crop insurance, climate, soil, and corn yield data.  Researchers found that since 1981, corn yields in the U.S. Midwest were reduced by as much as 34% during years with excessive rainfall.  Years with drought and heatwaves experienced yield losses of up to 37%.

Intense rain events can physically damage crops, delay planting and harvesting, restrict root growth, and cause oxygen deficiency and nutrient loss.  The study estimated that between 1989 and 2016, excessive rainfall caused $10 billion in agricultural losses. However, excessive rainfall can have either negative or positive impact on crop yield and the effects can vary regionally.

Parts of the Midwest have already experienced a 42% increase in the heaviest precipitation events since 1958.  Climate change models predict that much of this region will experience even more frequent and intense precipitation events in the coming decade.

According to the study, excessive rainfall is the major cause of crop damage currently in the U.S. for corn, and also has broad impacts for other staple crops such as soybeans and wheat. The authors suggest that as rainfall becomes more extreme, reforms will be needed in the U.S. crop insurance industry in order to better meet planting challenges faced by farmers. 

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Intense Rainfall Is As Damaging to Crops As Heatwaves and Drought, and Climate Change Is Making It Worse

Photo, posted October 2, 2013, courtesy of the United Soybean Board via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

The Price of Chocolate

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The Ivory Coast has lost more than 80% of its forests in the last 50 years, mainly as a result of cocoa production.

The Ivory Coast is a West African country the size of New Mexico and it produces more than a third of the world’s cocoa.  But around 40% of the country’s cocoa crop – supplying more than a tenth of the world’s chocolate bars – is grown illegally in the country’s national parks and 230 supposedly protected government-owned forests. 

Over the decades, as many as one million landless people from drought-stricken places like Mali and Burkina Faso moved into national parks and protected forests and started farming cocoa.  The Marahoue National Park alone has 30,000 illegal inhabitants.

Most cocoa is grown in monocultures of what is known as the full-sun system, which requires the removal of all surrounding trees.  As a result, many allegedly protected areas have been completely converted into farms.  Most of the cocoa in the Ivory Coast is grown on small farms, typically plots of 7 to 10 acres.  The farmers are caught in an exploitative and corrupt system of cocoa trading and land appropriation, and most earn less than a dollar a day.  Meanwhile, government agencies charged with protecting the forests are more interested in collecting bribes than safeguarding woodlands.

The Ivory Coast government is unveiling a plan to actually remove protection from most of its remaining forests and hand them over to the world’s chocolate traders.    The claim is that this will protect other forests by improving cocoa productivity in already deforested areas.  Needless to say, conservation groups are dubious that the new plan will positively impact an already terrible situation.

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The Real Price of a Chocolate Bar: West Africa’s Rainforests

Photo, posted April 17, 2015, courtesy of Tom Coady via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

California Fires And Precipitation

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Two things we have heard a lot about in recent years have been the persistent drought in California and the terrible wildfires the state has experienced.  Along the way, the state has had some pretty wet and snowy winters.  This past winter, the California snow pack has seen incredible levels building up, which is great news for the state’s farmers.  But does that also mean that the next year should see some relief from severe wildfires?

The answer appears to be no.  A new study from an international team that includes the University of Arizona has comprehensively looked at the amount of winter precipitation in California and the severity of the subsequent wildfire season. 

The position of the North Pacific jetstream over California is strongly linked to the amount of winter precipitation.  This has been true for hundreds of years and continues to be the case.

From 1600 to 1903, the linkage between winter precipitation and wildfire severity was also very strong.  But after 1904, that connection weakened.  As a result, fire suppression policies were instituted.  When fires arose, they were put out as quickly as possible.  The result over time is fuel buildup, making larger fires far more likely.

According to the new study, after 1977, the connection between winter precipitation and wildfire severity disappeared entirely.  There no longer appears to be any relationship between jet stream dynamics and fire.  The warming climate and the results of fire suppression dominate the potential for wildfire.  California’s wet winter of 2016-2017 provides a good example.  That winter was followed by many large fires in 2017.

So, this very wet winter in California does not imply that this should be a year without severe wildfires.

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Wildfire Risk in California No Longer Coupled to Winter Precipitation

Photo, posted July 26, 2018, courtesy of Bureau of Land Management California via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Greenhouses Adapt To Climate Change

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The Telangana region of India has struggled with extreme weather patterns attributed to climate change.  Extended periods of drought, heatwaves, and unpredictable heavy rainfalls have led to crop failures, mounting debt, and a heavy human toll.  More than 3,000 farmers committed suicide in Telangana during a three-year drought.

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Saving Wheat

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Rising temperatures, drought, pests and diseases are moving north into the U.S. heartland and are increasingly posing a threat to the wheat crop.  An insect called the Hessian fly is reducing crop yields by 10% a year in the Midwest.  Average temperatures in the Midwest have risen by 2 degrees since 2000, and periods of time between rainfalls is lengthening.  Conditions in some areas of the Midwest are getting to be more like those in the Middle East.

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Reviled Animals Can Be Beneficial

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Predators and scavengers are widely persecuted by people because they are often harmful to property, livestock, and human beings.  Nonetheless, research has shown that many of these animals play important roles in ecosystems and their removal can be quite harmful.

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Are Big Cats In Big Trouble?

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According to researchers with the National Geographic Society’s Big Cats Initiative, cheetahs are much closer to extinction than previously thought. The research team has released a study, which was recently published in the journal PeerJ, that updates the cheetah population numbers in southern Africa, the largest of its remaining habitat.

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