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Strawberries and climate change

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The demand for strawberries continues to climb around the world.  According to data from World Population Review, China remains the global leader in strawberry production, a spot it’s held since 1994.  Last year, China produced 3.3 million tons of strawberries, followed by the United States at 1.05 million tons, Egypt at 597,000 tons, and Mexico at 557,000 tons.

While strawberries are grown coast to coast in the U.S., California and Florida are the top two strawberry-producing states due to their favorable climate conditions.  In fact, California produces more than 90% of the domestic strawberry crop.  But Florida plays a key role in domestic strawberry production as well by growing the majority of the winter crop. 

A new study by researchers from the University of Waterloo in Canada has examined the effect of climate change on California’s strawberry crop.  According to the research team, strawberries could be fewer and more expensive because of the higher temperatures caused by climate change.  The report, which was recently published in the journal Sustainability, found that a 3° Fahrenheit rise in temperature could reduce strawberry yields by up to 40%.

According to the researchers, the impact of climate change on strawberry production could be mitigated by implementing certain sustainable farming practices.  These include optimizing irrigation to ensure adequate water supply during heat waves and using shading plants and shade structures to mitigate heat stress.

Understanding how rising temperatures affect crop yields should encourage farmers and governments to develop sustainable agriculture responses to global warming.

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Influence of Regional Temperature Anomalies on Strawberry Yield: A Study Using Multivariate Copula Analysis

Strawberry Production by Country 2024

Researchers predict fewer, pricier strawberries as temperatures warm

Photo, posted June 3, 2007, courtesy of David Slack via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

Artificial reefs

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The coral reefs that surround tropical islands are a refuge for a wide variety of marine life and also form a natural buffer against stormy seas.  The changing climate is bleaching coral reefs and breaking them down.  Extreme weather events are becoming more common and are threatening coastal communities with flooding and erosion.

Researchers at MIT are designing architected reefs – sustainable offshore structures that mimic the wave-buffering effects of natural reefs and can also provide habitats for fish and other marine life.

There are already artificial reefs in a number of places used to protect coastlines.  These are typically made from sunken ships, retired oil and gas platforms, and even assemblies of concrete, metal, car tires, and stones.  Generally, it takes quite a lot of material to form an effective barrier to waves.

The MIT group has developed a cylindrical structure surrounded by four rudder-like slats.  Their experiments have shown that when this structure stands in the way of a wave, it efficiently breaks the wave and creates turbulent jets that dissipate the energy in the wave.  The engineers calculated that the new design could reduce as much wave energy as existing artificial reefs but use 10 times less material.

Based on the initial experiments with lab-scale prototypes, these artificial reefs would reduce the energy of incoming waves by more than 95%.

Coral reefs are only found in tropical waters, whereas these artificial reefs don’t depend on temperature and could be placed along any coastline for protection.  In a time of rising seas and increasingly frequent storms, these artificial reefs may be just what coastlines need.

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Artificial reef designed by MIT engineers could protect marine life, reduce storm damage

Photo, posted December 9, 2010, courtesy of Phoenix Wolf-Ray via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

Windows To Cool Buildings | Earth Wise

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About 15% of global energy consumption is for cooling buildings.  Because of this, there is an ever- growing need for technologies that can more efficiently cool buildings.   Researchers at Notre Dame University have used advanced computing technology and artificial intelligence to design a transparent window coating that is able to lower the temperature inside buildings without using any energy.

The idea is to create a coating that blocks the sun’s ultraviolet and near-infrared light, which are parts of the solar spectrum that otherwise pass through glass and help to heat an enclosed room.  Cooling needs can be reduced further if the coating can radiate heat from the surface of the window so it can pass through the atmosphere into space.  Designing a coating that does both of those things simultaneously while transmitting visible light is difficult.  Coatings should not interfere with the view out the window.

The Notre Dame researchers used advanced computer modeling to create a so-called transparent radiative cooler that meets these goals.  The coating consists of alternating layers of common materials like silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, and aluminum oxide or titanium dioxide on top of a glass base and topped with a film of polydimethylsiloxane.  The computing method was able to optimize this structure far faster and better than conventional design techniques.

The researchers say that in hot, dry cities, the coating could potentially reduce cooling energy consumption by 31% compared with conventional windows.  The same materials could be used in other applications, such as car and truck windows.  In addition, the quantum computing-enabled optimization method used for this work could be used to design other composite materials.

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Clear window coating could cool buildings without using energy

Photo, posted September 6, 2015, courtesy of Robert Otmn via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

Fuel From Coffee Grounds | Earth Wise

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The world drinks a lot of coffee.  Americans alone consume 400 million cups a day.  Each cup of coffee results in about half an ounce of coffee grounds.  Adding that up, this country produces over 6,000 tons of coffee grounds each day.  While coffee grounds are not particularly harmful, that is an awful lot of waste that mostly ends up in landfills or is incinerated.

Researchers at Aston University in the UK have developed a method of producing high-quality biodiesel fuel from coffee grounds.  Their study was published in the journal Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.

The technique consists of growing a particular species of microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris) directly on spent coffee grounds.  The coffee grounds provide both the nutrients for the microalgae and a structure upon which it can grow.   Exposing the algae to light for 20 hours a day and dark for just four hours a day produced the best quality biodiesel.

Microalgae is well-known as a feedstock for biodiesel production.  Previously, it has been grown on materials like polyurethane foam or nylon which don’t provide any nutrients.   Using the coffee grounds as the substrate for growth means that no external nutrients are needed.

The resultant enhanced biodiesel produces minimal emissions and good engine performance and meets both US and European specifications.  This feedstock for producing biodiesel is ideal since it doesn’t require any competition with food crops and instead makes use of a widely available waste product.  The hope is that it may reduce the cutting down of palm trees to extract oil for biofuel.  In southeast Asia, this has been a major source of deforestation and increased greenhouse gas emissions.

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Aston University researchers ‘feed’ leftover coffee grounds to microalgae to produce low emission biodiesel

Photo, posted October 13, 2007, courtesy of David Joyce via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

The Importance Of Wildlife Crossings | Earth Wise

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Highway accidents involving animals are a big problem for both people and animals.  According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, motorists in the United States kill one to two million large animals every year.  About 200 people are killed annually in the U.S. as a result of those collisions with animals.   

These crashes are expensive, too.  Deer-vehicle collisions cost an average of more than $8,000 each; elk-vehicle collisions cost about $25,000; and moose-vehicle collisions cost more than $44,000.

One solution that has been quite effective around the world in reducing car-animal collisions is wildlife overpasses and underpasses.  They are designed to help animals move in search of food and to escape predators and wildfires.  These traffic-spanning bridges and tunnels have been popular in Europe since the 1950s.  They look much like regular overpasses for cars but are decked out with native flora.  The underpasses, which assist shyer and smaller animals, are typically invisible to drivers.

According to a new economic analysis by researchers at Washington State University, wildlife crossings in Washington State save roughly $235,000 to $443,000 every year per structure. 

Wildlife crossing structures range in cost from $500,000 for a tunnel-like underpass to more than $6 million for a broad bridge.  There may soon be many more wildlife crossing structures across the country since $350 million was allotted in the federal Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act signed into law in 2021.

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Wildlife crossings potentially save millions annually in Washington state

How wildlife bridges over highways make animals—and people—safer

Photo, posted March 24, 2017, courtesy of Jeffrey Beall via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

Living Walls | Earth Wise

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Green roofs are popular in many European countries.  A green roof is a layer of vegetation planted over a waterproofing system installed on a flat or slightly sloped roof.  Such roofs provide shade, remove heat from the air, and reduce temperatures of the roof surface, reducing energy use in the building and diminishing the urban heat-island effect.

A recent study by the University of Plymouth in the UK looked at the effectiveness of living walls – essentially the equivalent of a green roof located on the wall of a building.

The study looked at the effect of retrofitting an existing masonry wall with an exterior living wall façade consisting of a flexible felt fabric sheet system with pockets holding soil in which plants could grow.

Five weeks of measurements demonstrated that the amount of heat lost through the retrofitted wall was 31.4% lower than that of the original structure.  They also found that daytime temperatures within the newly covered section remained more stable than the area with exposed masonry, so that less energy was required to heat that area.

The concept of living walls is fairly new but could be valuable in temperate climates such as Great Britain.  Buildings in the UK account for 17% of greenhouse gas emissions and space heating accounts for 60% of all the energy used in buildings.  So, improving the thermal performance of buildings would have a significant effect on reducing energy use and therefore emissions.

So-called green infrastructure, including green roofs and living walls, provides a nature-based solution that can help tackle climate change, air pollution, and other modern urban problems.

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Living walls can reduce heat lost from buildings by over 30%, study shows

Photo, posted June 19, 2011, courtesy of Linda Hartley via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Superstrong Nanofibers | Earth Wise

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Self-assembly is a ubiquitous process in the natural world that leads to the formation of the DNA double helix, the creation of cell membranes, and to many other structures.   Scientists and engineers have been working to design new molecules that assemble themselves in water for the purpose of making nanostructures for biomedical applications such as drug delivery or tissue engineering.  For the most part, the materials created in this way have been chemically unstable and tended to degrade rapidly, especially when the water is removed.

A team at MIT recently published a paper describing a new class of small molecules they have designed that spontaneously assemble into nanoribbons with unprecedented strength and that retain their structure outside of water.

The material is modeled after a cell membrane.  Its outer part is hydrophilic (it likes to be in water) and its inner part is hydrophobic (it tries to avoid water.)  This configuration drives the self-assembly to create a specific nanostructure and by choosing the appropriate chemicals to form the structures, the result was nanoribbons in the form of long threads that could be dried and handled.  The resultant material in many ways resembles Kevlar.   In particular, the threads could hold 200 times their own weight and have extraordinarily high surface areas.  The fibers are stronger than steel and the high surface-to-mass ratio offers promise for miniaturizing technologies for such applications as pulling heavy-metal contaminants out of water and for use in electronic devices and batteries.

The goal of the research is to tune the internal state of matter to create exceptionally strong molecular nanostructures.  The potential for important new applications is considerable and exciting.

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Researchers construct molecular nanofibers that are stronger than steel

Photo, posted June 19, 2007, courtesy of Andrew Hitchcock via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

The Toughest Beetle Of Them All | Earth Wise

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In 2015, UC Riverside materials scientists placed a mottled black beetle in a parking lot and ran it over with a Toyota Camry.  Twice.  Crushed beneath the wheels of a 3,500-pound sedan, the inch-long insect made it through without a scratch.

For the past five years, a group of scientists have been studying this remarkable bug, which has the splendid name of the diabolical ironclad beetle. Using a combination of advanced microscopy, mechanical testing, and computer simulations, the researchers have figured out the secret of this beetle’s crush resistance.

The beetle’s super-toughness lies in two armorlike structures called elytra that meet in a line, called a suture, running the length of the abdomen.  The suture acts like a jigsaw puzzle.  It connects various exoskeletal blades – the puzzle pieces – in the abdomen under the elytra.   These structural components can act in different ways.  The interconnecting blades lock to prevent themselves from pulling out of the suture.  The suture and blades delaminate, leading to a graceful deformation rather than catastrophic failure.  These strategies dissipate energy to circumvent fracturing.

The researchers found that the diabolical ironclad beetle – just had to say that name again – can take on an applied force of about 150 newtons, a load at least 39,000 times its body weight.  (That’s the equivalent of a 150-pound person resisting the crush of about 25 blue whales).

An ongoing challenge for structural engineering is how to join together different materials without limiting their ability to support loads.  The strategies evolved in these beetles may be applicable in gas turbines of aircraft, for example, where metals and composite materials are joined together with mechanical fasteners.   We can learn things from the toughest beetle of them all.

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Diabolical ironclad beetles inspire tougher joints for engineering applications

Photo, posted April 9, 2017, courtesy of Vahe Martirosyan via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Recycling Tough Plastics | Earth Wise

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Thermoset plastics are ones that contain polymers that cross-link together during the curing process to form an irreversible chemical bond.  This improves the material’s mechanical properties, provides chemical resistance, heat resistance, and structural integrity.  Thermosets include epoxies, polyurethanes, and rubber used for tires.  The big problem with thermosets is that they cannot be easily recycled or broken down after use.

Seventy-five percent of all plastics are thermoplastics, which can be recycled by heating them until they become liquid and can then be remolded.   Thermoset plastics, on the other hand, have such strong chemical bonds that they simply will not melt.  They will typically burn before they can be remolded.

Chemists at MIT have recently developed a way to modify thermoset plastics with a chemical linker that makes them much easier to break down, but still retain the mechanical properties that make them so useful.

In a study published in Nature, the researchers produced a degradable version of a thermoset plastic called pDCPD.  They then broke the plastic down into a powder and were able to use the powder to create more pDCPD.  The paper also proposed a theoretical model that suggests that their approach could be used for a wide range of other plastics and polymers, including rubber.

By adding a chemical called a silyl ether monomer to the liquid precursors that from pDCPD plastic, they found that the resultant material retained its mechanical strength but can be broken down into a soluble powder upon exposure to fluoride ions.

Using this approach with other thermoset materials, the researchers believe it will be possible to create recyclable versions of many of the toughest plastic materials.

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Chemists make tough plastics recyclable

Photo, posted September 1, 2019, courtesy of Luke McKernan via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Indoor Pollution

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We mostly think of air pollution as an outdoor problem.   The primary culprits are vehicle and factory exhaust as well as occasional wildfire smoke.  What we don’t think about is the air quality inside our own homes.

Researchers at Washington State University have found that indoor pollution levels can be surprisingly high and that they vary throughout the day and increase as temperatures rise.

Indoor air pollution comes from a variety of sources, including building materials, furniture, household chemical products, and from activities like cooking.  One of the most serious pollutants is formaldehyde, which often is emitted from gypsum wallboard.  About half of the gypsum used in homes as drywall is made from waste products from the coal industry.  When the material is heated, formaldehyde and possibly even mercury can be emitted.

Pollutant levels rise in homes as temperatures increase.  Thus, the highest levels of pollution occur in the afternoon and the lowest are in the early morning.  Before this research, manufacturers and builders assumed that pollution levels were pretty much constant over time.

Building laws require that homes are structurally sound, and that people are comfortable, but there is little regulation of air quality in people’s homes.  One of the best ways to clear out harmful chemicals is with ventilation to the outdoors.  But with increased concern about reducing energy use, builders are making homes more airtight, which may inadvertently be worsening the problem.

We need to balance making more energy efficient homes with protecting our health by being aware of the dangers that lurk in the air in our homes.  Running the air conditioning or opening windows are good things to do.

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Researchers uncover indoor pollution hazards

Photo, posted October 14, 2010, courtesy of Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

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