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Modeling geoengineering

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As the impacts of climate change continue to mount up, there is increasing interest in radical intervention measures designed to keep a lid on rising global temperatures.  Such measures are fraught with potential dangers and unintended consequences but there is no guarantee that one or another of them might still be attempted in the future.  Increasing international interest in geoengineering as a potential strategy for mitigating climate change has created a pressing need to consider its impact before any potentially irreversible actions are taken.

The Natural Environment Research Council in the UK is funding four research projects aimed at understanding the potential consequences of solar radiation modification (SRM) being deployed in the real world.

SRM consists of methods to reflect some of the Sun’s radiation back into space instead of allowing it to reach and warm the earth. 

One approach is stratospheric aerosol intervention in which particles such as sulfates are introduced into the upper atmosphere to reflect sunlight thereby producing a dimming effect.   The idea is to mimic the effects of large volcanic eruptions, which naturally send sulfates into the atmosphere.

A second approach is marine cloud brightening, which increases the reflectivity of clouds over the ocean by spraying very small droplets of sea water into the air.  The fine particles of sea salt enhance cloud condensation nuclei, producing more cloud droplets and making clouds more reflective.

The research aims to deliver independent risk analyses to inform policymakers about the potential environmental impacts of SRM.

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Scientists to model the impact of controlling Earth’s temperature by reflecting solar radiation

Photo, posted May 6, 2009, courtesy of Denys Zadorozhnyi via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

Sharks and rays in a warming world

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Sharks and rays belong to a group of cartilaginous fish called elasmobranchs, which have been swimming in the world’s oceans for 450 million years. The resilient species have survived five mass extinction events, and are older than dinosaurs, trees, and Mount Everest. 

But despite their resilience, many species of sharks and rays today are threatened by human activities, including overfishing, habitat loss, and climate change.  In fact, according to a new study led by researchers from the University of Vienna in Austria, more than one third of the shark and ray species known today are severely under threat. 

The study, which was recently published in the journal Biology, found that higher carbon dioxide levels were having a negative effect on sharks and rays, ranging from impacts on the animals’ senses to changes in the skeleton during embryonic development.  An examination of fossil records found that higher CO2 levels had contributed to the extinction of individual shark and ray species in the past. 

But the study also found that global warming could be creating opportunities for sharks and rays.  Rising sea levels and higher temperatures have historically expanded shallow coastal habitats and warm waters, supporting species biodiversity.

But according to the research team, the rapid environmental changes, combined with the impacts from human activities, outpace the ability of sharks and rays to adapt, making it unlikely that they will benefit from global warming.

Protecting sharks and rays is crucial not only for their survival but also for maintaining entire ocean ecosystems. Without top predators, these ecosystems could collapse, impacting both marine life and the people and industries that depend on it.

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Sharks and rays benefit from global warming – but not from CO2 in the Oceans

Myths About Sharks and Rays

Photo, posted November 27, 2007, courtesy of Laszlo Ilyes via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

A New Deep-Sea Reef In The Galapagos | Earth Wise

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Like in many other places around the world, ocean warming has mostly destroyed the shallow-water reefs in the Galapagos Islands.  The islands are some of the most carefully protected places in the world, but they can’t escape the effects of a warming planet.

Recently, however, scientists have discovered a healthy, sprawling coral reef hidden deep under the sea in the Galapagos.  More than 1,300 feet underwater, the reef extends for several miles along the ridge of a previously unknown volcano in the Galapagos Marine Preserve.

The reef is pristine and is teeming with all sorts of marine life including pink octopus, batfish, squat lobsters, and a variety of deep-sea fish, sharks, and rays.

The expedition that discovered the new reef was led by the University of Essex in the UK.  Prior to this discovery, scientists thought that coral reefs were all but gone from the Galapagos.  A period of ocean warming in 1982 through 1983 wiped out more than 95% of the corals in the archipelago.  Only a few reefs in shallow waters remained.  The newly discovered reefs are sheltered deep under the sea and would have been protected from the deadly heat.

According to the scientists from the expedition, the newly discovered reef potentially has global significance because it represents a site that can be monitored over time to see how such a pristine habitat evolves with the ongoing climate crisis.  Reefs like this are clearly very old because coral reefs take a long time to grow. Finding this one means that it is likely that there are more healthy reefs across different depths that are waiting to be discovered.

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Pristine Deep-Sea Reef Discovered in the Galápagos

Photo, posted March 28, 2009, courtesy of Derek Keats via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

The U.S. Ratifies A Climate Treaty | Earth Wise

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In a rare display of bipartisanship, the U.S. Senate voted 69-27 in favor of ratifying a key international climate agreement aimed at curbing global warming.  The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, which has been ratified by 137 other countries so far, ends the use of climate-warming hydrofluorocarbons that are 1,000 times more potent than carbon dioxide in warming the atmosphere.   This is the first international climate treaty that the U.S. has joined in 30 years.

The Kigali Agreement was established in Kigali, Rwanda in 2016 to phase out HFCs, which have been the replacements for CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) in air conditioners and refrigerators.  CFCs were found to be depleting the ozone layers that protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays.  HFCs do not deplete the ozone layer, but they have been a significant contributor to global warming.

The U.S. ratification of the treaty is largely symbolic.  The American Innovation and Manufacturing Act, passed by Congress in 2020, gave the EPA authority to regulate HFCs and the agency has already been doing so.  However, the Senate action shows that the U.S. is back on the international climate bandwagon. 

Failure to ratify the Kigali Amendment would have closed segments of the chemical and manufacturing industries to U.S. producers after 2023 because the Montreal Protocol prohibits trade with countries not party to it or its amendments.

Environmental advocates are hopeful that the U.S. can move forward on other climate actions.  A next step would be to focus on methane, the second leading driver of climate change after carbon dioxide.

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Senate Votes to Ratify the Kigali Amendment, Joining 137 Nations in an Effort to Curb Global Warming

Photo, posted June 13, 2017, courtesy of UNIDO via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio

Assessing Human-Caused Wildlife Mortality | Earth Wise

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Bycatch is the fishing industry term used to describe the deaths of non-target fish and ocean wildlife during the fishing process.  Some bycatch species are thrown away because regulations prohibit them from being kept.  Others are thrown out because they won’t fetch high enough prices.  According to some estimates, global bycatch amounts to about 10% of the world’s total catch. 

Approximately half of global bycatch is a result of trawling.  Trawling is a method of commercial fishing that involves pulling or dragging a fishing net – called a trawl – through the water or across the seabed in hopes of catching fish.  Commercial fishing companies favor towing trawl nets because large quantities of fish can be caught.  But the method is destructive to the seafloor and leads to the indiscriminate catch of all sorts of species, including whales, dolphins, porpoises, sharks, seals, rays, turtles, and seabirds. 

Researchers have developed a new method to assess the sustainable levels of human-caused wildlife mortality.  When this method is applied to a trawl fishery in Australia, it shows that the dolphin capture is not sustainable.  The study, led by scientists at the University of Bristol in the U.K. and United Arab Emirates University, modeled different levels of dolphin capture, including those reported in logbooks and those reported by independent observers.  According to the findings, which were recently published in the journal Conservation Biology, even the lowest recorded dolphin capture rates are not sustainable. 

The new approach is extremely adept at assessing human-caused mortality to wildlife, and can be applied to fisheries bycatch, hunting, lethal control measures, or even wind turbine collisions.

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Wasted Catch

Dolphin bycatch from fishing practices unsustainable, study finds

Photo, posted May 18, 2011, courtesy of Pete Markham via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

A Smart Window | Earth Wise

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Researchers at Oxford University have developed a new adaptable smart window technology that has the potential of reducing the energy usage of the average home by a third.

The technology uses a spectrally tunable low-emissivity coating that can control the amount of heat that comes into a room without affecting the quality of the light that enters.

The thermal energy from the sun’s infrared rays is absorbed by the glass and then is re-emitted as heat.  That heat can either be used to warm the room using transparent electrical heaters embedded in the glass or can be reflected away to cool the room.  The windows can change according to seasonal needs.

The researchers built a prototype using a material called an active chalcogenide-based phase change material.  When it is cold, the infrared rays from the sunlight are harvested and used to heat the building.  When it is warm, the new glass can switch state to reflect the heat and reduce the need for air conditioning.  The active phase change material is adjustable so that the amount of heat absorbed or reflected can be tuned for precise temperature control.  There is essentially no effect on visible light passing through the window.  Current low-emissivity glass for windows can reduce heat transfer, but its properties cannot be altered according to seasonal needs.

The researchers estimate that using windows fitted with the new prototype glass – including the energy required to control the film – would save 20 to 34% in energy usage annually compared to double-glazed windows found in many modern homes.

A spinout company from Oxford called Bodle Technologies is collaborating with two existing industrial partners to develop the technology further.

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New adaptable smart window coating could help heat or cool a home and save energy

Photo, posted April 26, 2008, courtesy of Lima Andruska via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Lighted Nets Protect Marine Wildlife | Earth Wise

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Gillnets are walls or curtains of netting that hang in the water to trap fish.  They are one of the most extensively used fishing gear in coastal regions throughout the world’s oceans.  While they are very effective at catching targeted fish species, they are not discriminating.  As a result, they carry significant risk of bycatch – the accidental capture of unwanted species as well as other interactions with various marine animals.

Researchers from The Wildlife Conservation Society, NOAA Fisheries, Arizona State University, and the National Fisheries and Aquaculture Institute of Mexico have recently published a study showing that using lighted gillnets reduced overall bycatch by 63%, including a 95% reduction in sharks, skates, and rays, and an 81% reduction in Humboldt squid. 

Gillnets often catch endangered, threatened, and protected species such as sharks, sea turtles, marine mammals, and seabirds, as well as unwanted species and non-marketable juvenile target fish species.  The bycatch animals are often dead or injured and are generally dumped overboard.

Illuminating gillnets with LED lights has emerged over the past decade as an effective tool to reduce bycatch of endangered sea turtles.  The new study is the first detailed examination of the effectiveness of illumination for other vulnerable species.

Gillnets are ubiquitous because they are inexpensive and catch everything that passes them.  Global populations of sharks, skates, and rays have declined as a result of bycatch and illegal fishing. The results of this study are encouraging because they provide a practical solution for increasing the selectivity of gillnets and avoiding bycatch. 

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Lighted Nets Dramatically Reduce Bycatch of Sharks and Other Wildlife While Making Fishing More Efficient

Photo, posted September 19, 2015, courtesy of Jim Bahn via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

Keeping Lights On For Turtles

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Gillnets are one of the most common types of fishing gear and are used extensively in most places where people fish for food.  They operate by suspending a wall of netting in the water column.

Unfortunately, they are not selective in the species they catch.  Sea turtles are one of the most common bycatch species that become entangled in these nets.  When turtles are caught in gillnets, they can drown and die.  Marine mammals, seabirds, and sharks are also frequently caught in gillnets.

Recently, researchers have been experimenting with illuminating the nets with LED lights to see if increasing net visibility reduces sea turtle bycatch.

Studies in Mexico show green sea turtle bycatch is reduced between 40-60% with no changes in target catch.  Studies in Peru show green sea turtle bycatch is reduced between 65-80% with no changes in target catch.  Studies in Indonesia show green olive ridley, and hawksbill sea turtle bycatch is reduced by 60% with increases in target catch and catch value.

Recent research shows that net illumination also reduces bycatch of other protected species such as seabirds, sharks and rays, as well as dolphins and porpoises.

The use of illuminated gillnets could prove beneficial to both sea turtles and fisherman by reducing the bycatch that can damage fishing gear. 

Studies are now underway off the coast of North Carolina, where state gillnet fisheries are carefully managed to reduce turtle bycatch.  Initial studies show that net illumination does not change target catch rates and may even decrease the bycatch of unwanted fish species.  When it comes to protecting sea turtles, it looks like a good idea to keep the lights on.

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Illuminated Nets Could Provide A Brighter Future For Sea Turtles

Photo, posted June 2, 2016, courtesy of NOAA via Flickr.

Earth Wise is a production of WAMC Northeast Public Radio.

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